Temples and deities are an integral part of our society today. We see temples dedicated to deities like Vishnu (in forms like Krishna, Rama, Narismha etc), Shiva, Lakshmi, Shakti (in different forms), Hanuman etc. All these deities are from the Puranic references. We see mentions of these Gods and their stories in various Purans and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. But prior to that, we can see other rituals and other deities being revered.
The era of 1500 BCE to 500 BCE is commonly referred to as the Vedic period. The ritual of Yagnya was particularly popular in the times, and ritual continues to be followed till date. Instead of worship of idol, sacrifical fire was used for evocation of the deity. The deities that were revered were mostly the personifications of natural forces, that provided necessary energy to humans. The deities included Indra (personification of thunder and rains), Vayu (air and wind), Agni (fire), Varuna (water in all forms), Surya (Sun), Soma (moon), Prithvi (Earth), Saraswati (knowledge), Usha (dawn). Let’s take a dip into the deities, their stories and iconography.
Indra
Indra on his elephant, guarding the entrance of the 1st century BCE Buddhist Cave 19 at Bhaja Caves (Maharashtra).
Indra is the king of the devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. Indra is the most referred deity in the Rigveda. He is celebrated for his powers based on his status as a god of order, and as the one who killed the great evil, an asura named Vritra, who obstructed human prosperity and happiness. Indra destroys Vritra and his “deceiving forces”, and thereby brings rain and sunshine as the savior of mankind.
The origin of Indra is unclear. Aspects of Indra as a deity are connected to other Indo-European gods. there are thunder gods such as Thor, Perun, and Zeus who share parts of his heroic mythologies, act as king of gods, and all are linked to “rain and thunder”. The similarities between Indra of Vedic mythology and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant. Both Indra and Thor are storm gods, with powers over lightning and thunder, both carry a hammer or an equivalent, for both the weapon returns to their hand after they hurl it, both are associated with bulls in the earliest layer of respective texts, both use thunder as a battle-cry, both are protectors of mankind, both are described with legends about “milking the cloud-cows”, both are benevolent giants, gods of strength, of life, of marriage and the healing gods.
Indra is praised as the highest god in 250 hymns of the Rigveda. He is co-praised as the supreme in another 50 hymns, thus making him one of the most celebrated Vedic deities. The tale about Indra being king of the Gods probably arrived later in Puranic era. In Vedic structure, all Gods are considered to be equal. Indra is not a visible natural force, and is not a personification of natural forces. He instead is agent which causes the lightning, the rains and the rivers to flow. His myths and adventures in the Vedic literature are numerous, ranging from harnessing the rains, cutting through mountains to help rivers flow, helping land becoming fertile, unleashing sun by defeating the clouds, warming the land by overcoming the winter forces, winning the light and dawn for mankind, putting milk in the cows, rejuvenating the immobile into something mobile and prosperous, and in general, he is depicted as removing any and all sorts of obstacles to human progress.
इन्द्रस्य नु वीर्याणि प्र वोचं यानि चकार प्रथमानि वज्री ।
अहन्नहिमन्वपस्ततर्द प्र वक्षणा अभिनत्पर्वतानाम् ॥१।।
अहन्नहिं पर्वते शिश्रियाणं त्वष्टास्मै वज्रं स्वर्यं ततक्ष ।
वाश्रा इव धेनवः स्यन्दमाना अञ्जः समुद्रमव जग्मुरापः ॥२।।
—Rigveda, 1.32.1–2
Along with these positive traits about him in Purans, he is also depicted as someone unworthy of protecting, and constantly running to Vishnu or other deities to seek help whenever there was a war or unfavorable situation. The stories of Vishnu’s incarnations are very closely related to shortcomings of India. When Indra did not control rains in time, and caused great floods, it was Vishnu’s Matsya Avatar that warned Manu beforehand and helped him create a system to preserve life on earth. When Indra insulted Durvasa’s gift, and all the treasures were gone because of Durvasa’s curse; Vishnu has to descent to earth as a tortoise. Vishnu facilitated churning of the ocean as Kurma, and helped in bringing out the treasures from the bottom of the ocean. When Indra could not protect earth and Hiranyaksha managed to take earth at the bottom of the ocean; Vishnu descended as Varaha to save the earth or Bhudevi. In later incarnations too, Indra plays a role. He is father of Vali in Ramayana and father of Arjun in Mahabharata.
Indra is also depicted as an unsecure God, who would feel unsecure by Tapa (asceticism) by Rishis. He is said to often send nymphs (Rambha , Menaka, Urvashi, Tarottama etc) to lure the Rishis and change their path from the Tapa. Indra is also said to have multiple affairs with other women. One such was Ahalya, the wife of sage Gautama. Indra was cursed by the sage. Although the Brahmanas (9th to 6th centuries BCE) are the earliest scriptures to hint at their relationship, the epic Ramayana is the first to explicitly mention the affair in detail. The stories about his ego also appear in Bhagavata Purana, where Indra is said to have caused excessive rain in Gokul and Brinvavan, when the villagers refused to worship him and offer him the annual Prasada. The excessive rains were caused as a result of anger of Indra and with an intention of causing harm to the mankind. Krishna is said to have come to rescue here, when he lifted the mount Govardhana on his fingertip and saved the villagers. Mahabharata also accuses Indra of unfair play, when he appears in front of Karna with a fake identity of a poor Brahmana, and asks him for his Kavachakundala (shield and golden earings).
Indra’s weapon, which he used to kill the evil Vritra, is the Vajra or thunderbolt. The Vajra is said to be made from bones of a sage named Dadhichi. Other alternate iconographic symbolism for him includes a bow (sometimes as a colorful rainbow), a sword, a net, a noose, a hook, or a conch. In the post-Vedic period, he rides a large, four-tusked white elephant called Airavata. In sculpture and relief artworks in temples, he typically sits on an elephant or is near one. In his hands, he holds the Vajra and a bow. He is sometimes depicted with his wife Shachi.
The Buddhist cosmology places Indra above Mount Sumeru, in Trayastrimsha heaven. He resides and rules over one of the six realms of rebirth, the Devas realm of Saṃsāra, that is widely sought in the Buddhist tradition. Indra in Jain mythology always serves the Tirthankara teachers. Indra most commonly appears in stories related to Tirthankaras, in which Indra himself manages and celebrates the five auspicious events in that Tirthankara’s life.
2. Vayu
Vayu, along with his consort. Pachchala Someshwara Temple, Pannagallu, dist Nalgonda, Telangana
Vayu (also known as Vata and Pavana) is the god of the winds as well as the divine messenger of the gods. In the Rigveda, Vayu is associated with the winds, with the Maruts being described as being born from Vayu’s belly. Vayu is also the first god to receive soma in the ritual, and then he and Indra share their first drink. Vayu is also associated with “Pran” or the “energy that gives us life”. Thus, Vayu is responsible for bringing and maintaining life to all alive ones on earth.
वाय॒वा या॑हि दर्शते॒मे सोमा॒ अर॑ङ्कृताः। तेषां॑ पाहि श्रु॒धी हव॑म्॥१॥
वाय॑ उ॒क्थेभि॑र्जरन्ते॒ त्वामच्छा॑ जरि॒तार॑:। सु॒तसो॑मा अह॒र्विद॑:॥२॥
वायो॒ तव॑ प्रपृञ्च॒ती धेना॑ जिगाति दा॒शुषे॑। उ॒रू॒ची सोम॑पीतये॥३॥
इन्द्र॑वायू इ॒मे सू॒ता उप॒ प्रयो॑भि॒रा ग॑तम्। इन्द॑वो वामु॒शन्ति॒ हि॥४॥
वाय॒विन्द्र॑श्च चेतथः सु॒तानां॑ वाजिनीवसू। तावा या॑त॒मुप॑ द्र॒वत्॥५॥
वाय॒विन्द्र॑श्च सुन्व॒त आ या॑त॒मुप॑ निष्कृ॒तम्। म॒क्ष्वि त्था धि॒या न॑रा॥६॥
मि॒त्रं हु॑वे पू॒तद॑क्षं॒ वरु॑णं च रि॒शाद॑सम्। धियं॑ घृ॒ताचीं॒ साध॑न्ता॥७॥
ऋ॒तेन॑ मित्रावरुणावृतावृधावृतस्पृशा। क्रतुं॑ बृहन्त॑माशाथे॥८॥
क॒वी नो॑ मि॒त्रावरु॑णा तुविजा॒ता उ॑रु॒क्षया॑। दक्षं॑ दधाते अ॒पस॑म्॥९॥
In Upnishadas, there are some stories associated with Vayu. There is one story where all Gods were fighting on the subject of supremacy and importance in body of a living thing. When all deities tried withdrawing themselves from body one by one, the living things continued to live. However, when Vayu withdrew himself, the living thing could not survive even for a moment. Thus, underlining the importance of Vayu on the earth.
Vayu appears in Ramayana as father of Hanuman and in Mahabharata as father of Bhima. Ramayana tells a story when Hanuman tried to leap towards Sun, thinking of it to be a huge fruit. When Indra was terrified and hit Hanuman with his Vajra; Vayu, being father of Hanuman, was very angry. He soaked in all Prana from earth in anger. This terrified all Gods, foreseeing loss of entire life on earth. Brahma brought Hanuman back to life, and only then Vayu gave back Prana to the earthly creatures. Hanuman is very commonly referred as “Pavanputra” or son of Pavana (another name for Vayu).
Vayu is shown wearing a crown and has four arms. He rides on an antelope, which is his vehicle. In his top two hands, he carries weapons like a lance and a strong goad. His bottom two hands make gestures of protection and granting gifts. He also possesses a wind weapon called the Vayvayastra. In East Asian Buddhism, Vayu is a dharmapāla.
3. Agni
Agni, along with his consort. Pachchala Someshwara Temple, Pannagallu, dist Nalgonda, Telangana
Agni is one of the most important Vedic deity. Agni is manifestation of fire, one of the most important force for humankind to survive and flourish. In the Vedas, Agni is a major and most invoked god along with Indra and Soma. Agni is considered the mouth of the gods and goddesses and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa (votive ritual). He is also conceptualized in ancient texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in the atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as the sun. This triple presence accords him as the messenger between the deities and humans in the Vedic scriptures. In the classical cosmology of Hinduism, fire (Agni) is one of the five inert impermanent elements (Pancha Bhuta or Panch Mahabhuta) along with sky (Akasha), water (Apas), air (Vayu) and earth (Prithvi), the five combining to form the empirically perceived material existence (Prakriti).
In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. The word Agni is used in many contexts, ranging from fire in the stomach, the cooking fire in a home, the sacrificial fire in an altar, the fire of cremation, the fire of rebirth, the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants, the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun.
ॐ अ॒ग्निमी॑ळे पु॒रोहि॑तं य॒ज्ञस्य॑ दे॒वमृत्विज॑म्। होता॑रं रत्न॒धात॑मम्॥१॥
अ॒ग्निः पूर्वे॑भि॒रृषि॑भि॒रीड्यो॒ नूत॑नैरु॒त। स दे॒वाँ एह व॑क्षति॥२॥
अ॒ग्निना॑ र॒यिम॑श्नव॒त्पोष॑मे॒व दि॒वेदि॑वे। य॒शसं॑ वी॒रव॑त्तमम्॥३॥
अग्ने॒ यं य॒ज्ञम॑ध्व॒रं वि॒श्वत॑: परि॒भूरसि॑। स इद्दे॒वेषु॑ गच्छति॥४॥
अ॒ग्निर्होता॑ क॒विक्र॑तुः स॒त्यश्चि॒त्रश्र॑वस्तमः। दे॒वो दे॒वेभि॒रा ग॑मत्॥५॥
यद॒ङ्ग द॒शुषे॒ त्वमग्ने॑ भ॒द्रं क॑रि॒ष्यसि॑। तवेत्तत्स॒त्यम॑ङ्गिरः॥६॥
उप॑ त्वाग्ने दि॒वेदि॑वे॒ दोषा॑वस्तर्धि॒या व॒यम्। नमो॒ भर॑न्त॒ एम॑सि॥७॥
राज॑न्तमध्व॒राणां॑ गो॒पामृ॒तस्य॒ दीदि॑विम्। वर्ध॑मानं स्वे दमे॑॥८॥
स न॑: पि॒तेव॑ सू॒नवेऽग्ने॑ सूपाय॒नो भ॑व। सच॑स्वा नः स्व॒स्तये॑॥९॥
There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, others tracing to mythologies within the Indian tradition. The origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. The earliest layers of the Vedic texts of Hinduism state that the universe began with nothing, neither night nor day existed, what existed was just Prajapati. Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati. With the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the “creator-maintainer-destroyer” triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Surya ruled the sky and heavens.
The iconography of Agni varies by region. He is shown with one to three heads, two to four arms, is typically red-complexioned or smoky-grey complexioned standing next to or riding a ram, with a characteristic dramatic halo of flames leaping upwards from his crown. He is shown as a strong looking man, sometimes bearded, with a large belly because he eats everything offered into his flames, with golden brown hair, eyes and mustache to match the color of fire. Agni holds a rosary in one hand to symbolize his prayer-related role, and a sphere in another hand in eastern states of India. In other regions, his four arms hold an ax, torch, spoon (or fan) and a flaming spear (or rosary).
The earliest surviving artwork of Agni have been found at archaeological sites near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and these date from 1st-century BCE. In Gupta sculptures, Agni is found with a halo of flames round the body, the sacred thread across his chest, a beard, pot-bellied and holding in his right hand a amrtaghata (nectar-pot). Many of these early carvings and early statues show just one head, but elaborate details such as ear-rings made of three fruits, a detailed necklace, a slightly smiling face wearing a crown, and flames engraved into the hairs at the back of Agni’s statue.
Agni is symbolism for psychological and physiological aspects of life. There are three kinds of Agni inside every human being, states this text, the krodha-agni or “fire of anger”, the kama-agni or “fire of passion and desire”, and the udara-agni or “fire of digestion”. These respectively need introspective and voluntary offerings of forgiveness, detachment and fasting, if one desires spiritual freedom and liberation. Agni is said to be present in two forms. Jātaveda is the fire that carries the quid-pro-quo offerings to the gods, in which case Agni is light identified with knowledge. In the Jātaveda form, Agni is the messenger who carries the oblation from humans to the gods, bringing the Gods to sacrifice, and intercedes between gods and humans. Kravyād (क्रव्याद) is the form of Agni which cremates corpses, the fire of the funeral pyre that triggers the recycling of matter and spirit. In this way, after one’s death and at the time of cremation, Agni heats up and burns only the body, yet by its heat, one is reborn.
The goddess Svāhā is Agni’s wife. Her name is pronounced with offerings such as butter and seeds poured into the fire during ceremonies. Agni appears in many Buddhist canonical texts, as both a god as well as a metaphor for the element of heart or fire. In Pali literature, he is also called Aggi-Bhagavā, Jātaveda, and Vessānara. In a manner similar to the Hindu texts, the Buddhist texts also treat Agni (referred to as the fire element Tejas) as a fundamental material and building block of nature. The word Agni in Jainism refers to fire, but not in the sense of Vedic ideas. Agni appears in Jain thought, as a guardian deity and in its cosmology. Agni, as constitutive principle of fire or heat, was incorporated in texts of ancient medicine such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita. It is, along with Soma, the two classification premises in the pre-4th century CE medical texts found in Hinduism and Buddhism. Agni-related category included that of “hot, fiery, dry or parched” types, while Soma-related category included “moist, nourishing, soothing and cooling” types. This classification system was a basis of grouping medicinal herbs, seasons of the year, tastes and foods, empirical diagnosis of human illnesses, veterinary medicine, and many other aspects of health and lifestyle.
In today’s era as well, Agni holds important part in our rituals. Agni is invoked in a Yagnya at auspicious occasions like weddings, Bhumipujana, Vaastupoojana. Agni is also invoked in form of a Jyoti while performing Aarti of deities. The Agnihotra ritual involves fire, and the term refers to the ritual of keeping fire at home, and in some cases making “sacrificial offerings” such as milk and seeds to this fire. The festivals of Holi (festival of colours) and Diwali (festival of light) incorporate Agni in their ritual grammar, as a symbol of divine energy.
4. Varuna
Varuna, with his consort Varuni. Sculpture at CSMVS, Mumbai
Varuna is associated with the sky, oceans, and water. In the Vedic scriptures, he is paired with the god Mitra and is the lord of Rita (justice) and Satya (truth). In later era literatures, Yama is associated with justice and truth. Varuna is also mentioned as an Aditya, the sons of the goddess Aditi. In the earliest layer of the Rigveda, Varuna is the guardian of moral law, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. His relationship with waters, rivers and oceans is mentioned in the Vedas. Rig veda says Hiranyapaksha (golden winged bird) as the messenger of Varuna. The golden winged messenger bird of Varuna may not be a mythical one but most probably flamingos because they have colourful wings and flamingos are seen nearby seashores and marshlands.
In iconography, Varuna is depicted sitting on Makara (a water creature that looks like a crocodile), with a noose in his hand. Sometimes, he is also depicted with a lotus and a water pot, asserting his association with water bodies. He is also depicted with his wife Varuni in many sculptures. In rare occasions, he is carved with 4 heads or four arms. The iconographical features like Makara and water pot are also associated with river goddesses like Ganga, Yamuna and Kaveri.
Rama interacts with Varuna in the Ramayana. Faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean to Lanka, where his abducted wife Sita is held captive by the demon king Ravana, Rama prays to Varuna, the Lord of Oceans, for three days and three nights. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, enraged. With his bow and arrow, Rama prepares to attack the oceans to dry up the waters and create a bed of sand for his army of monkeys to cross and thus confront Ravana. As Rama is about to shoot the arrow, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, stating that he himself did not know how to help Rama because the sea is deep, vast and he cannot change the nature of sea. Varuna asked Rama to build a bridge and promised that he will not disturb him or his army as they build a bridge and cross over to Lanka.
Jhulelal, the revered deity in Sindhi community, is said to be an incarnation of Varuna. They celebrate the festival of Cheti Chand in his honor. The coastal regions of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka celebrate Narali Paurnima in honor of Varuna. On this day offerings such as rice, flowers and coconuts are offered to Lord Varuna, the god of ocean and waters; by the fishing communities of the region. In Buddhism, Varuna is recognized as a king of the devas and companion of Sakka, Pajāpati and Isāna.
5. Surya
Sculpture of Surya with Arun, Usha and Pratyusha. Virupaksha temple, Pattadakkala
The vedic deity Surya is the manifestation of Sun, the biggest source of energy for earth. Surya is a deity that was worshipped for the longest time amongst the Vedic deities. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja. The oldest surviving Vedic hymns mention Surya with particular reverence for the “rising sun” and its symbolism as dispeller of darkness, one who empowers knowledge, the good and all life. However, the usage is context specific. In some hymns, the word Surya simply means Sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky; while in others it refers to a personified deity. Surya is prominently associated with the dawn goddess Ushas and sometimes, he is mentioned as her son or her husband.
Surya’s origin differs heavily in the Rigveda, with him being stated to have been born, risen, or established by a number of deities, including the Ādityas, Aditi, Dyaush, Mitra-Varuna, Agni, Indra, Soma, Indra-Soma, Indra-Varuna, Indra-Vishnu, Purusha, Dhatri, the Angirases, and the gods in general. The Atharvaveda also mentions that Surya originated from Vritra. The Vedas assert Sun (Surya) to be the creator of the material universe (Prakriti). In the layers of Vedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along with Agni and either Vayu or Indra, which are presented as an equivalent icon and aspect of the Hindu metaphysical concept called the Brahman. At many instances in Vedas, Surya and Agni are invoked in the same hymn. Surya is revered for giving light in the day and Agni is revered for giving light in the night.
चित्रं देवानामुदगादनीकं चक्षुर्मित्रस्य वरुणस्याग्नेः । आप्रा द्यावापृथिवी अन्तरिक्षं सूर्य आत्मा जगतस्तस्थुषश्च ॥
सूर्यो देवीमुषसं रोचमानां मर्यो न योषामभ्येति पश्चात् । यत्रा नरो देवयन्तो युगानि वितन्वते प्रति भद्राय भद्रम् ॥
भद्रा अश्वा हरितः सूर्यस्य चित्रा एतग्वा अनुमाद्यासः । नमस्यन्तो दिव आ पृष्ठमस्थुः परि द्यावापृथिवी यन्ति सद्यः ॥
तत्सूर्यस्य देवत्वं तन्महित्वं मध्या कर्तोर्विततं सं जभार । यदेदयुक्त हरितः सधस्थादाद्रात्री वासस्तनुते सिमस्मै ॥
तन्मित्रस्य वरुणस्याभिचक्षे सूर्यो रूपं कृणुते द्योरुपस्थे । अनन्तमन्यद्रुशदस्य पाजः कृष्णमन्यद्धरितः सं भरन्ति ॥
अद्या देवा उदिता सूर्यस्य निरंहसः पिपृता निरवद्यात् । तन्नो मित्रो वरुणो मामहन्तामदितिः सिन्धुः पृथिवी उत द्यौः ॥
Among the Vedic deities, Surya sculptures are most commonly found in comparison with the other deities. Earliest representations of Surya riding a chariot occur in the Buddhist railings of the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (2nd century BCE), in the Bhaja Caves (1st century BCE), and the Jain cave of Ananta Gumpha in Khandagiri (1st century CE). The iconography of Surya has varied over time. In some ancient arts, particularly from the early centuries of the common era, his iconography is similar to those found in Persia and Greece suggesting likely adoption of Greek, Iranian and Scythian influences. After the Greek and Kushan influences arrived in ancient India, some Surya icons of the period that followed show him wearing a cloak and high boots.
In Hindu context, the sun-god only appears at a later period, as in the Virupakṣa temple in Paṭṭadakal (8th century CE). The iconography of Surya in Hinduism varies with its texts. He is typically shown as a resplendent standing person holding a lotus flower in both hands, riding a chariot pulled by one or more horses typically seven. The seven horses are named after the seven meters of Sanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubha, Anushtubha and Pankti. Sometimes, he is shown with four hands, with flowers in two hands, a staff in third, and in fourth he should be shown to be holding writing equipment (Kundi palm leaf and pen symbolizing knowledge). The charioteer Aruna is shown seated in the chariot. Two females typically flank him, who represent the dawn goddesses named Usha and Pratyusha. The goddesses are shown to be shooting arrows, a symbolism for their initiative to challenge darkness. In other representations, these goddesses are Surya’s two wives, Samjna and Chhaya.
Having survived as a primary deity in Hinduism longer than any most of the original Vedic deities, the worship of Surya declined greatly around the 13th century, perhaps as a result of the Muslim destruction of Sun temples in North India. New Sun temples virtually ceased to be built, and some were later repurposed to a different deity. A number of important Surya temples remain, but most are no longer in worship. More common than Surya temples are artwork related to Surya, which are found in all types of temples of various traditions within Hinduism, such as the Hindu temples related to Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Shakti. Reliefs on temple walls, forts and artwork above doorways of many Hindu monasteries feature Surya.
Historical evidences suggest presence of multiple huge temples dedicated to Surya. These include the Martand Surya temple near Anantnag in Kashmir, Konark Surya Temple in Konark (Odisha), Modhera Surya temple (Modhera in Gujarat), Deo Surya temple in Deo (Bihar), Suryanar Kovil in Thanjavur (Tamilnadu), the Surya temple in Aihole (Karnataka), Surya temple at Arsavalli (Andhra Pradesh). The Gurjaras were particularly worshippers of Surya, and they had erected many temples dedicated to Surya.
Hindu temples predominantly have their primary entrance facing east, and their square principle based architecture is reverentially aligned the direction of the rising Surya. This alignment towards the sunrise is also found in most Buddhist and Jaina temples in and outside of India.
Surya also finds a prominent place in art and fitness. The repertoire of classical Indian dances include poses that signify rays of light beaming towards all of the universe, as a form of homage to Surya. The Suryanamaskara, a prominent practise of yoga, literally means sun salutation. It is a Yoga warm up routine based on a sequence of gracefully linked asanas. The nomenclature refers to the symbolism of Sun as the soul and the source of all life. Surya is celebrated as a deity in Buddhist works of art, such as the ancient works attributed to Ashoka. He appears in a relief at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya, riding in a chariot pulled by four horses, with Usha and Prattyusha on his sides. Such artwork suggests that the Surya as symbolism for the victory of good over evil is a concept adopted in Buddhism from an earlier Indic tradition. Surya as an important heavenly body appears in various Indian astronomical texts in Sanskrit. Surya is also a part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodiac system; and forms a very important place in astrology. Surya also finds a place in later day Puranas and epics. In Ramayana, Surya is father of Sugriv and Guru of Hanuman. In Mahabharata, he is the father of Karna and he provides energy and strength to Karna whenever Karna is facing a difficult situation.
In later era, we also find multiple composite sculptures of Surya. We find Surya’s iconography mixed with Shiva and Vishnu at some places. Surya, along with Chandra, finds a place as an iconographical aspect in many Shakti idols. Surya and Chandra (as a wheel and crescent respectively) can be seen sculpted on many idols of goddesses.
6. Soma
Chandra, sculpture at British museum, Konark, Odisha
Chandra, also known as Soma, is the Hindu god of the Moon, and is associated with the night, plants and vegetation. He is one of the Navagraha (nine planets of Hinduism) and Dikpala (guardians of the directions).
The origin of Soma is traced back to the Vedic texts, where he is the personification of a drink made from a plant with the same name. Scholars state that the plant had an important role in Vedic civilization and thus, the deity was one of the most important gods of the pantheon. In these Vedic texts, Soma is praised as the lord of plants and forests; the king of rivers and earth; and the father of the gods. The entire Mandala 9 of the Rigveda is dedicated to Soma, both the plant and the deity.
The identification of Soma as a lunar deity in the Vedic texts is a controversial topic among scholars. The reference to moon, through the word Soma started in post Vedic period. How and why this change took place is not known; but in the later of the Vedic hymns there is some evidence of the transition. As per Wilkins, one hymn in Veda translates to “By Soma the Adityas are strong; by Soma the earth is great; and Soma is placed in the midst of the stars. When they crush the plant, he who drinks regards it as Soma. Of him whom the priests regard as Soma (the moon) no one drinks.” Here, the word Soma is used for moon as well as drink, thus associating Soma with both.
In post Vedic texts like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas, Soma is mentioned as a lunar deity and has many epithets including Chandra. According to most of these texts, Chandra, along with his brothers Dattatreya and Durvasa, were the sons of the sage Atri and his wife Anasuya. The Devi Bhagavata Purana states Chandra to be the avatar of the creator god Brahma. Some texts contain varying accounts regarding Chandra’s birth. According to one text, he is the son of Dharma; while another mention Prabhakar as his father.
In one Puranic story, Chandra and Tara—the star goddess and the wife of devas’ guru Brihaspati—fell in love with each another. He abducted her and made her his queen. Brihaspati, after multiple failed peace missions and threats, declared war against Chandra. The Devas sided with their teacher, while Shukra, an enemy of Brihaspati and the teacher of Asuras, aided Chandra. After the intervention of Brahma stopped the war, Tara, pregnant, was returned to her husband. She later gave birth to a son named Budha, but there was a controversy over the paternity of the child; with both Chandra and Brihaspati claiming themselves as his father. Brahma once again interfered and questioned Tara, who eventually confirmed Chandra as the father of Budha. Budha’s son was Pururavas who established the Chandravamsha Dynasty. The Kauravas and Pandavas in Mahabharata were part of this Chandravamsha dynasty.
According to another legend, Ganesha was returning home on his mount Krauncha (a shrew) late on a full moon night after a mighty feast given by Kubera. On the journey back, a snake crossed their path and frightened by it, his mount ran away dislodging Ganesha in the process. An overstuffed Ganesha fell to the ground on his stomach, vomiting out all the Modaks he had eaten. On observing this, Chandra laughed at Ganesha. Ganesha lost his temper and broke off one of his tusks and flung it straight at the Moon, hurting him, and cursed him so that he would never be whole again. Therefore, It is forbidden to behold Chandra on Ganesh Chaturthi. This legend accounts for the Moon’s waxing and waning including a big crater on the Moon, a dark spot, visible even from Earth.
Soma’s iconography varies in Hindu texts. The most common is one where he is a white-coloured deity, holding a mace in his hand, riding a chariot with three wheels and three or more white horses (up to ten). Chandra or Soma are also revered in Buddhism and Jainism as the moon god. Soma is part of the Navagraha in the Hindu zodiac system, and is depicted as part of the nine planets. As mentioned earlier in the article, Soma also finds a spot in the iconographical feature of Shakti idols. Soma is represented here as a crescent.
Soma was presumed to be a planet in Hindu astronomical texts. It is often discussed in various Sanskrit astronomical texts, such as the 5th century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhatta, the 6th century Romaka by Latadeva and Panca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla. However, they show that the Hindu scholars were aware of elliptical orbits, and the texts include sophisticated formulae to calculate its past and future positions. The book “Surya Siddhartha” (around 7th century) gives formula for identifying the longitude of moon.
Chandra married 27 daughters of Prajapati Daksha — Ashvini, Bharani, Krittika, Rohini, Mrigashiras, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Pūrvaphalguni, Uttaraphalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Svati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mula, Purvashadha, Uttarashadha, Shravana, Dhanishta, Shatabhisha, Purvabhadrapada, Uttarabhadrapada, Revati. They all represent one of the 27 Nakshatra or constellations near the moon. One story mentions that, among all of his 27 wives, Chandra loved Rohini the most and spent most of his time with her.
7. Prithvi
Varaha, carrying Bhudevi (minifestation of Prithvi) in his hands. Badami caves, Karnataka
The stars and planets of solar system finds mention in Hindu Vedic texts. Sun is represented as Surya, moon as Chandra or Soma. Similarly, we find mentions of Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus),Shani (Saturn), Rahu (Ascending node of the Moon), Ketu (Descending node of the Moon). Prithvi is the Sanskrit name for the earth, as well as the name of a devi (goddess) in Hinduism of the earth and some branches of Buddhism. In the Vedas, her consort is Dyaus, the sky god. Her Puranic equivalent is known as Bhumi, the consort of Varaha.
The epic Mahabharata and most Puranas (including Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana and the Padma Purana) share a detailed story about Prithu, the first Chakravarthy (sovereign) king on the earth. Prithu is “celebrated as the first consecrated king, from whom the earth received her Sanskrit name, Prithvi.” He is mainly associated with the legend of his chasing the earth goddess, Prithvi, who fled in the form of a cow and eventually agreed to yield her milk as the world’s grain and vegetation. Prithu lowered his weapons and reasoned with the earth and promised her to be her guardian. Before Prithu’s reign, there was “no cultivation, no pasture, no agriculture, no highway for merchants”, all civilization emerged in Prithu’s rule. Prithu levelled the mountains and established villages, which were settled by his subjects. Prithu milked her using Swayambhuva Manu (the first man) as the calf, and received all vegetation and grain as her milk, in his hands for welfare of humanity. By granting life to the earth and being her protector, Prithu became the earth’s father and she accepted the patronymic name “Prithvi”. The Manu Smriti considers Prithvi as Prithu’s wife and not his daughter, and thus suggests the name “Prithvi” is named after her husband, Prithu.
Puranas talk about Bhumi, who is consort of Varaha and equivalent of Prithvi. In Devi Purana, Lakshmi is said to be present in two forms, Sridevi and Bhudevi. Here, Bhudevi refers all the land that we can see; and in a way, talks of Prithvi. In Buddhist texts and visual representations, Prithvi is described as both protecting Gautama Buddha and as being his witness for his enlightenment. Prithvi appears in Early Buddhism in the Pali Canon, dispelling the temptation figure Mara by attesting to Gautama Buddha’s worthiness to attain enlightenment. The Buddha is frequently depicted performing the Bhumisparsha or “earth-touching” mudra as a symbolic invocation of the goddess.
8. Saraswati
Saraswati, Late Chalukya era, Karnataka. Currently at CSMVS, Mumbai
Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, flowing water, abundance and wealth, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. In Hinduism, Saraswati has retained her significance as an important goddess, from the Vedic age up to the present day. She is praised in the Vedas as a water goddess of purification, while in the Dharmashastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, and on the meaning (artha) of one’s actions (karma).
Saraswati first appears in the Rigveda. Sarawsati holds significant religious and symbolic value in the Rigveda, as a deified entity embodying attributes of abundance and power. Primarily linked with the celestial domain of Waters (Apas) and the formidable Storm Gods (Maruts), this deity forms an integral triadic association alongside the sacrificial goddesses Ila and Bharati within the pantheon. Saraswati is praised as a mighty and unconquerable protector deity. She is offered praises and compared to a sheltering tree. In some passages she even takes a fiercesome appearance and is called a “slayer of strangers” who is called on to “guard her devotees against slander”. Like Indra, Saraswati is also called a slayer of Vritra, the snake like demon of drought who blocks rivers and as such is associated with destruction of enemies and removal of obstacles.
Saraswati remains an important figure in the later medieval Puranic literature, where she appears in various myths and stories. Many Puranas relate the myth of her creation by the creator god Brahma and then describe how she became his consort. Sources which describe this myth include Markandeya Purana, Matsya Purana (which contains the most extensive account), Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana. Other Puranas give her slightly different roles and see her as the consort of other gods, such as Vishnu. In various Puranas, rites for her worship are given, and she is mainly worshiped for her command over speech, knowledge, and music.
Saraswati is a key figure in the Indian goddess centered traditions which are today known as Shaktism. Saraswati appears in the Puranic Devi Mahatmya (Glory of the Goddess), a central text for Shaktism which was appended to the Markandeya Purana during the 6th century CE. In this text, she is part of the “triple goddess” (Tridevi) along with Mahakali, and Mahalakshmi. In Shaktism, this trinity (the Shakta response to the male trimurti of the other Hindu sects) is a manifestation of Mahadevi, the supreme goddess (and the highest deity out of which all deities, male or female, are born), which is also known by other names like Adi Parashakti (“Primordial Supreme Power”). In the epic Ramayana, when the rakshasa brothers Ravana, Vibhishana and Kumbhakarna, performed a penance in order to propitiate Brahma, the creator deity offered each a boon. The devas pleaded with Brahma to not grant Kumbhakarna his boon. Brahma called upon his consort Saraswati, and instructed her to utter that which the devas desired. She acquiesced, and when the rakshasa spoke to invoke his boon, she entered his mouth, causing him to say, “To sleep for innumerable years, O Lord of Lords, this is my desire!”. She then left his form, causing him to reflect upon his misfortune.
Saraswati is often depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus, which symbolizes light, knowledge and truth. She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. When shown with four hands, The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning – a pustaka (book or script), a mālā (rosary, garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (vīnā). The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, inner reflection, and spirituality. A pot of water represents the purifying power to separate right from wrong, the clean from the unclean, and essence from the inessential. In some texts, the pot of water is symbolism for soma – the drink that liberates and leads to knowledge. The most famous feature on Saraswati is a musical instrument called a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences, and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony. Saraswati is also associated with anurāga, the love for and rhythm of music, which represents all emotions and feelings expressed in speech or music. A hamsa – either a swan or a goose – is often shown near her feet. In Hindu mythology, the hamsa is a sacred bird, which if offered a mixture of milk and water, is said to have a unique ability to separate and drink the milk alone, and leave the water behind. This characteristic of the bird serves as a metaphor for the pursuit of wisdom amidst the complexities of life, the ability to discriminate between good and evil, truth from untruth, essence from the outward show, and the eternal from the evanescent.
There are multiple temples dedicated to Saraswati. Most prominent of them are Shringeri Sharadamba Temple in Karnataka; Gnana Saraswati Temple in Basar (Telangana); and Sharadapeeth in Kashmir. Saraswati is also depicted in Brahmani form, and finds some temples in Himachal in this form. The Gayatri temple at Pushkar (Rajasthan) is dedicated to Saraswati in Gayatri avatara.
In Buddhism, Saraswati became a prominent deity which retained many of her Vedic associations, such as speech, texts, knowledge, healing and protection. She also became known as the consort of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom (prajña). Saraswati is also revered in Jainism as the goddess of knowledge and is regarded as the source of all learning. She is known as Srutadevata, Sarada, and Vagisvari. The earliest sculpture of Saraswati in any religious tradition is the Mathura Jain Saraswati from Kankali Tila dating from 132 CE.
Vedic Deities as Digpalas
Digpalas carved on the roof of Pachchala Someshwara temple, Pannagallu, dist Nalgonda, Telangana
In Hiduism, Jainism and Buddhism; the eight directions have eight protectors/ rulers. As a group of eight deities, they are called Aṣṭa-Dikpala (अष्ट-दिक्पाल), literally meaning guardians of eight directions. They are often augmented with two extra deities for the ten directions (the two extra directions being zenith and nadir), when they are known as the Dasha-Dikpala. In Hinduism it is traditional to represent their images on the walls and ceilings of Hindu temples. There are variations in the list of Digpalas. But in either listings, the list of Digpalas is dominated by the Vedic deities. Indra is the ruler of east direction, Varuna rules over the west, Agni is the protector of South-East (Agneya in Sanskrit), Vayu in the Noerth-West (Vayavya in Sanskrit). The concept of Digpalas is also a basic principle of Vastushashtra; the science of buildings and construction.
Deities and their feminine energy (Matrikas)
Ashtamatrikas along with Ganesha, Siddheshwar temple, Latur, Maharashtra
In hinduism, Matrikas are a group of mother goddesses who are always depicted together. The Matrikas are often depicted in a group of seven, the Saptamatrika. However, they are also depicted as a group of eight, the Ashtamatrika. These matrikas are the feminine energies associated with the male deities. These include Vaishnavi (feminine energy of Vishnu), Maheshwari (Shiva’s feminine energy), Brahmanai (Bamha’s feminine energy), Varuni (Varuna’s feminine energy), Indrani (Indra’s feminine energy), Varahi (Varaha’s feminine energy), Kaumari (feminine energy of Kartikeya), Chamundi / Bhairavi (feminine energy of Bhairava) and Narismhi (feminine energy of Narsimha). In addition to these, sometimes even Vinayaki (feminine energy of Ganesha) is sculpted.