On March 7, Six new properties, including 5 archaeologically important places, have been added to India’s tentative list by UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre. This is a step towards their future nomination for the World Heritage List. India’s tentative list now comprises 62 sites, with 43 properties already listed as World Heritage Sites.
What is UNESCO World Heritage Site?
World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. These sites have legal protection under an international treaty. The sites are judged to contain “cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity”.
To be selected, a World Heritage Site is nominated by its host country and determined by the UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable, having a special cultural or physical significance, and to be under a sufficient system of legal protection. World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities, deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas, and others.
There are 43 World Heritage Sites in India. Out of these, 35 are cultural, seven are natural, and one, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type, listed for both cultural and natural properties. The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal. These sites were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee. The most recent site listed is the Moidams – the Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty, in 2024.
UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List
The UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List is an inventory of natural and cultural sites that a State Party (country) considers to have potential outstanding universal value and are therefore suitable for nomination to the World Heritage List. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list. India lists 62 properties on its tentative list.
The earliest entrants from India, in the list are Temples at Bishnupur (West Bengal), Mattancherry Palace in Ernakulam (Kerala), Group of monuments at Mandu (Madhya Pradesh) and Ancient Buddhist site of Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh). These 4 sites were added to the tentative list in the year 1998. In March 2025, 6 more sites were added to the tentative list. These 6 sites are Kanger Valley National Park in Chhatisgarh; Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs in Telangana; Ashokan Edict sites along the Mauryan Routes (spread across Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh); Chausath Yogini Temples (in Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh); the Gupta temples in north India (spread across Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) and the Palaces and fortresses of the Bundelas (in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). Out of these, the Kanger Valley National Park is listed as a Natural site, while other 5 are sites of cultural significance.
Here is some information about the 5 sites of cultural significance, that were recently added to the list.
1. Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs
A menhir is a large upright stone, emplaced in the ground by humans, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. Menhir are also called as standing stone, orthostat, or lith. They can be found individually as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs’ size can vary considerably, but they often taper toward the top. Menhirs are found across Europe, Africa, and Asia, with a concentration in Western Europe, notably in Ireland, Great Britain, and Brittany.
Almost nothing is known of the social organization or religious beliefs of the people who erected the menhirs. Their language is also unknown. It is known, however, that they buried their dead and had the skills to grow crops, farm and make pottery, stone tools and jewelry. Identifying the purpose or use of menhirs still remains speculative.
The Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs are situated on the banks of Krishna river, In the Narayanpet district of Telangana. Nestled among agricultural fields, these ancient stones stand tall and silent. The ancient builders had carefully aligned the menhirs with celestial bodies, marking the solstices, equinoxes, and star patterns, thereby establishing the Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs site as an ancient observatory. The site’s natural environment, with its proximity to the river and its integration into agricultural lands, reflects its enduring significance in the region and highlights its connection to both the terrestrial and cosmic realms.
Dating back approximately 3500 to 4000 years, the Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs site is a significant remnant of the megalithic tradition in South Asia. The site is notable for its unique arrangements of menhirs carefully positioned to align with celestial events. The menhirs are part of a broader megalithic landscape that includes burial sites, stone circles, and inscribed rocks.
The site is divided into distinct sections. In one part, the menhirs are concentrated in a relatively lower-lying area, forming an alignment that correlates with the solstices. Some menhirs are aligned with the rising and setting sun during the summer and winter solstices, suggesting their use as an ancient observatory. About 400 meters west of the menhirs, on the summit of one hillock, there is a remarkable cuboid-shaped rock bearing cup marks that replicate the constellation of Ursa Major. This careful depiction of the night sky reveals the advanced astronomical knowledge of the site’s builders and points to the site’s function as a place of celestial observation. The Ursa Major constellation is particularly significant, as it has been revered in various cultures for its link with the North Star. In Hindu mythology Ursa Major is known as the Saptarishi (Seven Sages). The positioning of two stars in this constellation, Merak and Dubhe, points to the North Star, a crucial navigational guide for centuries.
The Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs site talks about ancient human ingenuity and the timeless connection between earth and sky. The site’s integration of celestial alignments and its role as a possible ancient observatory highlights its Outstanding Universal Value, offering a rare glimpse into the ways in which early civilizations observed and understood their world.
2. Ashokan Edict sites along the Mauryan Routes
This is a serial nomination that consists of a group of 35 sites, consisting of inscriptions from the Ashoka era. Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. During time rule of Ashoka, multiple inscriptions were carved on stones, pillars, boulders and cave walls. The edicts describe in detail Ashoka’s policy on dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced. These inscriptions were dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and provide the first tangible evidence of Buddhism.
The inscriptions show his efforts to develop the dhamma throughout his empire. Although Buddhism as well as Gautama Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism. These were located in public places and were meant for people to read. The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread dhamma, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program. The edicts were based on Ashoka’s ideas on administration and behavior of people towards one another and religion.
Besides a few inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic (which were discovered only in the 20th century), the Edicts were mostly written in the Brahmi script and sometimes in the Kharoshthi script in the northwest, two Indian scripts which had both become extinct around the 5th century CE, and were yet undeciphered at the time the Edicts were discovered and investigated in the 19th century.
The Ashokan edicts hold the distinction of being the first written inscriptions in India following the decline of the ancient city of Harappa. Remarkably, many of these edicts remain visible at their original locations due to being carved into immovable rocks and boulders. Through these inscriptions on stones and pillars, Ashoka shared pivotal moments from his royal life. His words offer a glimpse into how he reshaped his own journey while attempting to transform the lives of people within his empire and even beyond its borders. The Ashokan edicts are a remarkable testimony to the cultural and religious practices of Buddhism. It provides crucial details on the policies, convictions, and legacy of the emperor and illustrates the effect of Buddhism and the moral standards propagated during Mauryan rule.
The nomination includes 8 major rock edicts from Girnar, Dhauli, Jaugada, Sopara, Kalsi, Erragudi and Sannathi. 18 minor rock edicts from Sasaram, Rupnath, Bairat, Brahmagiri, Siddapura, Jatinga-Rameshwara, Maski, Erragudi, Gavimath, Paligunda, Rajula Mandagiri, Gujjara, Bahapur, Panguraria, Nittur, Udaegolm, Ratanpurwa and Ahraura are also part of this nomination. Additionally, the pillar edicts from Kosam (Prayagraj), Araraj and Nandangarh (Lauriya), Meerut, Topra, Sanchi and Rampurva are included in the list. The Sarnath Schism edicts and Barabar cave inscription are also included in the list.
3. Chausath Yogini Temples
In Tantrik or Yogic traditions of Hinduism, a female master practitioner of tantra and yoga is referred as Yogini. The word is also used as a formal term of respect for female Hindu or Buddhist spiritual teachers in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Greater Tibet. In some traditions, Yoginis are believed to be incarnation of Mahadeva’s powerful feminine energy (Mahadevi) or that of Parvati. That’s why they are closely associated with Shiva.
Yoginis are first mentioned in literature in the sixth-century text Agni Purana, with their origins rooted in the Vedic tradition. As per some theories, the worship of Yoginis started outside the Vedic traditions, with the cult of Grama Devata (village Goddesses). The Grama Devata protected the village and provided fertility and prosperity. Gradually, these goddesses might have been grouped together into a number believed powerful, most often 64, and they became accepted as a valid part of Hinduism. Historical records suggest that Yogini worship was well established by the 10th century in both Hindu and Buddhist tantra traditions. The development of Yogini practise reflects a synthesis of Vedic and classical Hindu elements.
Between 9th and 12th centuries, roofless hypaethral shrines were erected in honor of the yoginis. Most of these temples have 64 images of the Yoginis in their individual cells or shrine with intricate stone carvings circularly arranged. These temples are mostly situated on hilltops. The temples were typically circular, on elevated ground (or pedestal), and open to the sky. The statues of the 64 female forms were in chambers lining the circumference of the temple.
They remained largely unknown and unstudied by scholars until late in the 20th century. There are around 13 such temples in India out of which 8 are in Madhya Pradesh. These include Chausath Yogini temples at Khajuraho, Bhedaghat, Mitaoli, Dudhai, Badoh, Hinglajgarh, Shahdol, Naresar in Madhya Pradesh; Hirapur, Ranipur in Odisha and Lakheri, Rikhiyan in Uttar Pradesh and Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. These 13 temples have been included in the tentative list, as a set.
The temples serve as a unique testimony to the ancient yogic and tantric traditions prevalent between 9-12th century under the reign of various rulers in different regions. It reflects the spiritual practices associated with the worship of the Yogini deities, contributing to our understanding of ancient Indian cultural and religious traditions. While other Hindu temples focus on mainstream deities like Vishnu and Shiva, the Chausath Yogini temples highlight a more esoteric and mystical aspect of Hinduism, focused on goddess worship and Tantric practices. This diversity of religious practice and architectural form enhances the global significance of these temples.
4. Gupta Temples in North India
The Gupta Empire ruled during the classical period of the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian subcontinent. The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place under the Gupta dynasty. Many Hindu epics and literary sources, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira and Vatsyayana, who made significant advancements in many academic fields.
Among many cultural contributions of the Gupta dynasty, one of the most prominent was the construction of structural temples. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
Gupta era temples are distinctive in their form and design. The uniqueness lies in the temple form of architectural expression that started taking shape with the development of the deity’s chamber, the garbhagriha, a small mandapa and the mukhamandapa. These temples exhibit architectural features influenced by both Buddhist and Hindu traditions. It represents an early stage in the development of temple architecture in India.
The innovative fusion of architectural elements, including intricate carvings and decorative motifs, showcases the exceptional craftsmanship and artistic mastery of the period. The temples are remarkable for their distinct style of architecture, marked by a harmonious blend of religious symbolism, refined design, and intricate craftsmanship. Most of the Gupta temples are made of sun-dried bricks and terracotta, with some made in sandstone. The Udayagiri cave’s rock-cut architecture is one of the exceptions that showcases exceptional rock-cut precision and artistry.
The nomination consists of 20 temples from the Gupta era. The 20 temples are Temple No. 17, Gupta Temple Sanchi, Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh; Cave No. 1, Udayagiri, Vidisha district, Madhya Pradesh; Nachna Temple, Panna Nachna, Panna district, Madhya Pradesh; Gupta temple of brick, Bhitargaon, Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh; Gupta temple, Deogarh, Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh; Kankali Devi temple, Tigawa, Katni district, Madhya Pradesh; Siva temple, Bhumara, Satna district, Madhya Pradesh; Siva temple, Sakor, Damoh district, Madhya Pradesh; Vamana temple, Deori, Sagar district, Madhya Pradesh; Bhim-ki-chauri, Dara, Kota district, Rajasthan; Terraced Vishnu temple (Padmavati Brick Temple), Pawaya, Gwalior district, Madhya Pradesh; Terraced brick temple, Lauriya-Nandagarh, West Champaran district, Bihar; Terraced brick temple, Ahichhatra, Bareily district, Uttar Pradesh; Maniyar Math, Rajgir, Nalanda district, Bihar; 5th Period temple, Site 3 (Mahavihara), Nalanda district, Bihar; Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya, Gaya district, Bihar; Stone temple no 2, Nalanda district, Bihar; Aphsad Vishnu temple Aphsad, Nalanda district, Bihar; Mundeshwari temple, Ramgarh, Kaimur district, Bihar and Bhitari temple, Bhitari, Ghazipur district, Uttar Pradesh.
5. The Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas
Spread in the north-central Madhya Pradesh and south central Uttar Pradesh, is a region that was ruled by the powerful and art lover Chandelas, between 9th to 12th centuries. The region boasts of UNESCO World Heritage site in the form of Khajuraho. Additionally, the region has a few temples that are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative list under Chausath Yogini Temples, Gupta Temples, Ashokan Edicts. The palace-temples of Orchha are also nominated in the tentative list.
After fall of Chandelas, the Bundela dynasty ruled over the region. The Bundelas, whose origin is obscure, emerged in the 14th century. They won prominence when they resisted the Afghan emperor, Sher Shah of Sur, who was killed while besieging their fortress of Kalinjar in 1545. The Bundela Bir Singh of Orchha, in collusion with Akbar’s son, Prince Salim (later Jahangir), ambushed and killed the Mughal emperor’s confidant, Abu al-Faḍl ʿAllāmī, in 1602. The Bundela Rajputs played a significant role in Indian history from the 16th to the 19th centuries. They maintained a distinct identity through alliances and conflicts with the Mughals, Marathas, and the British, and constitute an essential component of India’s historical narrative.
The Bundela territories were important because through them ran the route from the Deccan to the Yamuna-Ganges doab. But they were hilly, remote, and difficult to control. The Mughals suppressed many insurrections until the Bundelas called in the Marathas (1729). After many transformations, the tract passed under British control in the early 19th century. The fortress of Kalinjar was taken in 1812.
Among many achievements associated with the Bundelas, building palace-fortresses is one of the most prime one. These forts and palaces embody the cultural traditions, architectural styles, and political history of the Bundela Rajputs. The Bundela forts and palaces not only reflect the strategic military designs and fortification techniques employed by the Bundelas but also showcase their contributions to the region’s cultural landscape through distinctive architectural styles influenced by indigenous traditions amalgamated with Rajput and Mughal artistry.
The nomination includes 7 palace-fortresses built by the Bundelas. These include Garhkundar Fort (Kundar, Madhya Pradesh), Raja Mahal (Orchha, Madhya Pradesh), Jahangir Mahal (Orchha, Madhya Pradesh), Datia Palace (Datia, Madhya Pradesh), Jhansi Fort (Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh) and Dhubela Palace (Dubela, Madhya Pradesh). The palaces exhibit high levels of creativity, craftsmanship and experimentation with respect to the development of a distinct Bundela palatial architectural style. The architectural layout and defensive mechanisms of the forts, such as the strategic placement of bastions and gateways in Garhkundar and Jhansi Fort and the elaborate water systems in Datia Palace, illustrate advanced fortification strategies adapted to the regional topography. These fortified palaces further reflect a high level of ingenuity in addressing both defensive and residential needs. The palace-fortresses also exhibits an important interchange of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles over the centuries to create a unique Bundela visual expression. The Bundela kings assimilated elements from both the provincial network and the imperial network grounding the two different styles to create a distinct new form.
Dr Janki Thaker
Guest Author